War and Succession

“The Tashkent Declaration was a reasonable compromise. But in both countries, it was seen as a sellout. Hawks on both sides felt their leaders had given away too much.” — Ramachandra Guha

This chapter examines the 1965 India-Pakistan War in greater detail—its origins, conduct, and consequences—and the political transitions that followed Shastri’s sudden death, leading to Indira Gandhi’s rise to power.

Origins of the 1965 War

Pakistan’s military rulers, emboldened by India’s 1962 defeat, believed they could detach Kashmir through a combination of guerrilla warfare and conventional attack. Operation Gibraltar aimed to spark an uprising; Operation Grand Slam would cut off Kashmir from India.

Pakistani Calculations

Pakistan believed: (1) Kashmiris would rise against Indian rule; (2) India, still recovering from 1962, could not fight effectively; (3) China might intervene; (4) The US would restrain India. All these assumptions proved wrong.

The August Infiltration

In August 1965, several thousand Pakistani soldiers in civilian disguise crossed into Kashmir. They were supposed to link up with local insurgents and trigger a general uprising. Instead, Kashmiris reported them to Indian authorities.

Operation Gibraltar Fails

The expected uprising never materialized. The infiltrators were hunted down. Pakistan’s assumption that Kashmiris were waiting to be “liberated” was exposed as fantasy. The failure prompted Pakistan to escalate.

The War Begins

On September 1, Pakistan launched Operation Grand Slam—an armored thrust toward Akhnoor, threatening to cut off Kashmir. India responded by crossing the international border and attacking toward Lahore and Sialkot.

Timeline:

• September 1 — Grand Slam: Pakistani armor attacks toward Akhnoor in Jammu.
• September 6 — India Crosses Border: Indian forces attack toward Lahore, opening a second front.
• September 8 — Battle of Asal Uttar: India destroys Pakistani armor in a decisive tank battle.
• September 22 — Ceasefire: UN-mandated ceasefire takes effect.

The War’s Conduct

The war was intense but brief. Major tank battles occurred at Asal Uttar and Chawinda. Air forces clashed over both countries. India had the advantage of interior lines; Pakistan’s two wings (East and West) could not support each other.

Military Assessment

Neither side achieved its objectives. Pakistan failed to take Kashmir; India failed to take Lahore. But strategically, Pakistan’s gamble had failed. The status quo was preserved—exactly what Pakistan had tried to change.

Tashkent

The Soviet Union, seeking influence in South Asia, invited both leaders to Tashkent. Prime Minister Shastri and President Ayub Khan signed an agreement on January 10, 1966, restoring the status quo ante and committing to peaceful resolution of disputes.

Shastri’s Death

Hours after signing the Tashkent Declaration, Shastri died of a heart attack. His death—in a foreign country, immediately after a major diplomatic event—sparked conspiracy theories that persist today.

An Unexplained Death

Was Shastri poisoned? There is no credible evidence, and the most likely cause remains a heart attack under extreme stress. But the questions have never been fully resolved, and his family has demanded reinvestigation.

The Second Succession

India again faced the succession question. The Syndicate, learning from 1964, wanted a more pliable candidate. They chose Indira Gandhi—Nehru’s daughter but seemingly without independent power base.

The Kingmakers’ Choice

Kamaraj and the Syndicate believed Indira would be dependent on them. She was relatively inexperienced, had no faction of her own, and seemed temperamentally unsuited for political combat. They would soon discover their error.

Indira Takes Charge

Indira Gandhi was sworn in on January 24, 1966. She inherited a country still dealing with war’s aftermath, food crisis, and economic difficulties. Her first years were marked by dependence on the Syndicate—but she was already planning her breakout.

“Indira Gandhi was underestimated by everyone—by the Syndicate who chose her, by the opposition who dismissed her, and by foreign observers who saw only Nehru’s daughter. They all paid for their miscalculation.” — Ramachandra Guha

Key Takeaways

• Pakistan’s 1965 gamble was based on false assumptions about Kashmir
• Operation Gibraltar failed when Kashmiris did not rise against India
• India’s crossing of the international border changed the war’s character
• The war ended in stalemate, preserving the status quo Pakistan tried to change
• Shastri died mysteriously at Tashkent after signing the peace agreement
• The Syndicate chose Indira Gandhi expecting a pliable puppet