“The fate of Kashmir should be decided by its people… When peace and law and order have been established, I would myself recommend that the people of Kashmir should be given an opportunity to decide their future.” — Jawaharlal Nehru, November 1947
Kashmir—the most beautiful and most contested of the princely states—has been at the center of India-Pakistan conflict since independence. This chapter traces the origins of the Kashmir dispute, from the maharaja’s indecision to the first war and the UN intervention that left the issue unresolved.
The state of Jammu and Kashmir was unusual: it had a Hindu ruler, Maharaja Hari Singh, but a Muslim majority population. Geographically, it bordered both India and Pakistan, making accession to either plausible.
The state consisted of several distinct regions: the Kashmir Valley (Muslim majority, Kashmiri-speaking), Jammu (Hindu majority), Ladakh (Buddhist), and the northern areas (Muslim). Each region had different demographics and political orientations.
The Maharaja, hoping to preserve his independence, delayed his decision on accession. He signed a “standstill agreement” with Pakistan but not with India, keeping his options open.
In October 1947, tribal warriors from Pakistan’s Northwest Frontier Province invaded Kashmir. They were supported, if not directed, by Pakistan. The raiders moved rapidly toward Srinagar, looting, killing, and destroying as they advanced.
The tribal raiders, known as “Kabailis,” were joined by some Pakistani army personnel. Their brutal conduct—including massacres at Baramulla—alienated the local population. They paused to loot rather than pressing on to Srinagar, giving India crucial time to respond.
Facing the tribal invasion, Maharaja Hari Singh appealed to India for help. India agreed to send troops but demanded accession first. On October 26, 1947, the Maharaja signed the Instrument of Accession, and India airlifted troops to Srinagar.
The popular Kashmiri leader Sheikh Abdullah, head of the National Conference party, supported accession to secular India over theocratic Pakistan. His support gave the accession democratic legitimacy beyond the Maharaja’s signature. Nehru promised a plebiscite once order was restored.
Indian troops secured Srinagar and pushed back the raiders. The war continued through 1948, with both Indian and Pakistani regular forces eventually engaging directly. The conflict reached a stalemate.
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Nehru took the Kashmir dispute to the United Nations, expecting the international community to condemn Pakistani aggression. Instead, the UN treated it as a bilateral dispute and called for a plebiscite—to be held after Pakistan withdrew its forces.
Taking Kashmir to the UN is often seen as one of Nehru’s major foreign policy mistakes. The international body did not simply support India’s position. Instead, the plebiscite promise became a permanent burden. Pakistan never withdrew, so the plebiscite never happened, but India remained committed to a promise it could not easily abandon.
The ceasefire line of 1949 (later the Line of Control) divided Kashmir roughly in two. Pakistan held what it called “Azad Kashmir” and the northern territories; India held the valley, Jammu, and Ladakh.
The first Kashmir war ended without resolution. The promised plebiscite never took place. Pakistan argued that India was occupying Kashmir against the will of its people; India argued that the accession was legal and that Pakistan had committed aggression.
This unresolved dispute would lead to three more wars, countless smaller conflicts, and the deaths of tens of thousands. Kashmir became the central issue in India-Pakistan relations, preventing normalization even when both countries might have benefited from peace.
“The Kashmir dispute is not merely a question of territory. It is a question of the fundamental incompatibility of two different visions of nationhood—secular versus religious nationalism.” — Ramachandra Guha